DOI: https://doi.org/10.61435/ijred.2026.62705
View PDF Download fulltext

Performance and emissions of a diesel engine fuelled with ultrasonically produced tobacco seed oil methyl ester: An RSM optimization study

1Faculty of Mechanical and Automotive Engineering, Viet Tri University of Industry, Phu Tho, Viet Nam

2Institute of Engineering, HUTECH University, Ho Chi Minh City, Viet Nam

3PATET Research Group, Ho Chi Minh City University of Transport, Ho Chi Minh City, Viet Nam

Received: 18 Feb 2026; Revised: 3 May 2026; Accepted: 27 May 2026; Available online: 10 Jun 2026; Published: 1 Jul 2026.
Editor(s): H Hadiyanto
Open Access Copyright (c) 2026 The Author(s). Published by Centre of Biomass and Renewable Energy (CBIORE)
Creative Commons License This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License.

Citation Format:
Abstract

Biodiesel plays an important role in making diesel engines more environmentally friendly and sustainable. Biodiesel use can significantly lower emissions of harmful pollutants, contributing to cleaner air and a reduced impact on climate change. Although there is an increasing body of research on non-edible biodiesel feedstocks, few studies have been able to systematically correlate fuel production, blend variation, and engine load optimization with a single statistical framework. This study fills this gap by combining ultrasonic-assisted two-step transesterification of tobacco seed oil (TSO) with response surface methodology to determine engine performance and emissions. Acid esterification was performed to produce TSO methyl ester, which was subjected to transesterification with NaOH under ultrasonic irradiation, to guarantee efficient conversion and low levels of free fatty acids. Indeed, TSO biodiesel and diesel fuel blends were tested on the engine under different loads. The findings indicate that the engine has a critical operating point of Engine Load (EL) = 96.90% and Lower Heating Value (LHV) = 41.82 MJ/kg, at which the engine has a peak thermal performance with BTE = 32.98% and BSFC = 0.27 kg/kWh. This indicates a very effective conversion of energy because of high in-cylinder temperature and pressure. Additionally, CO and HC emissions are significantly reduced, meaning that the combustion is almost complete. Nevertheless, NOx emissions increase dramatically to 657.74 ppm, proving the thermal penalty of high-temperature operation. This trade-off is validated by multi-objective optimization, which offers a strong framework to balance efficiency and emissions in biodiesel-powered engines.

Keywords: Alternative fuel; Sustainability; Biodiesel; Tobacco Seed Biodiesel; ANOVA; Optimization

Article Metrics:

Article Info
Section: Original Research Article
Language : EN
Recent articles
Optimization of energy efficiency and purge strategy of an open-cathode PEMFC stack with a dead-end anode configuration Control synthesis of battery-supercapacitor hybrid power sources system subject to parameter variations and input saturations Experimental investigation of a wildlife-safe origami-inspired reaction-type wind turbine for sustainable urban energy systems Machine learning in solar energy systems: Methods, applications, and future directions More recent articles
Most cited articles
Thermal Performance Improvement of the Heat Pipe by Employing Dolomite/Ethylene Glycol Nanofluid Developing A Family-Size Biogas-Fueled Electricity Generating System Premixed Combustion of Kapok (ceiba pentandra) seed oil on Perforated Burner Optimum Sizing Algorithm for An Off Grid Plant Considering Renewable Potentials and Load Profile An improved MPPT algorithm to minimize transient and steady state oscillation conditions for small SPV systems More cited articles
  1. Ahmad, A., Yadav, A. K., & Dewangan, A. K. (2025). Synergistic effect of various nanoparticles infused biodiesel/diesel blends on combustion, performance, and environmental characteristics of a CI engine. Journal of the Energy Institute, 120, 102117. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joei.2025.102117
  2. Ahmad, A., Yadav, A. K., Singh, A., Singh, D. K., & Ağbulut, Ü. (2024). A hybrid RSM-GA-PSO approach on optimization of process intensification of linseed biodiesel synthesis using an ultrasonic reactor: Enhancing biodiesel properties and engine characteristics with ternary fuel blends. Energy, 288, 129077. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2023.129077
  3. Alsaadi, S., Shakir, M. A., & Ahmad, M. I. (2025). A Comparative Review of Vegetative and Animal-Based Biodiesel: Feedstock Selection, Synthesis Method, Characterization Technique, and Economic Perspective. Journal of Climate Change, 11(2), 22. https://doi.org/10.70917/jcc-2025-013
  4. Awogbemi, O., Inambao, F., & Onuh, E. I. (2020). Optimization of FAME composition for improved engine performance and emissions reduction. International Journal of Low-Carbon Technologies, 15(4), 583–593. https://doi.org/10.1093/ijlct/ctaa027
  5. Chamkalani, A., Zendehboudi, S., Rezaei, N., & Hawboldt, K. (2020). A critical review on life cycle analysis of algae biodiesel: current challenges and future prospects. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 134, 110143. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2020.110143
  6. Christopher Selvam, D., Devarajan, Y., & Raja, T. (2026). Biodiesel and alcohol-biodiesel blends in marine diesel engines: Fuel properties, engine behavior, environmental impacts, and operational challenges. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 224, 119169. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2025.119169
  7. Desniorita, Permadani, R. L., Youfa, R., Nirmala, D., Pelita, E., Sahaq, A. B., & Jayanti, R. T. (2026). Optimization of Biodiesel Synthesis from Refined Bleached Deodorized Palm Oil Using Limestone CaO Catalyst Supported Chemically Activated Palm Oil Mill Fly Ash. International Journal on Advanced Science, Engineering and Information Technology, 16(1), 101–109. https://doi.org/10.18517/ijaseit.16.1.21565
  8. Di, Y., Cheung, C. S., & Huang, Z. (2009). Experimental investigation on regulated and unregulated emissions of a diesel engine fueled with ultra-low sulfur diesel fuel blended with biodiesel from waste cooking oil. Science of The Total Environment, 407(2), 835–846. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2008.09.023
  9. Djimtoingar, S. S., Derkyi, N. S. A., Kuranchie, F. A., & Yankyera, J. K. (2022). A review of response surface methodology for biogas process optimization. Cogent Engineering, 9(1). https://doi.org/10.1080/23311916.2022.2115283
  10. Donatus Setyawan Purwo Handoko. (2022). Utilization of Waste Tobacco (Nicotiana Tabacum) Post-Harvest as an Alternative Biodiesel. Jurnal Multidisiplin Madani, 2(12), 4343–4349. https://doi.org/10.55927/mudima.v2i12.1780
  11. Dong, V. H., & Sharma, P. (2023). Optimized conversion of waste vegetable oil to biofuel with Meta heuristic methods and design of experiments. Journal of Emerging Science and Engineering, 1(1), 22–28. https://doi.org/10.61435/jese.2023.4
  12. Fornasier, F., Gomez, J. F. C., Sansone, F. D. C., Schneider, R. D. C. de S., Costa, A. B. da, Moraes, J. A. R., & Bravo, C. A. G. (2018). Biodiesel production from energy tobacco. Orbital: The Electronic Journal of Chemistry, 10(2). https://doi.org/10.17807/orbital.v10i2.1120
  13. Gang, W., Yuan, Y., Jiang, G., Guo, H., & Zhang, Z. (2025). Experimental Study on Combustion and Vibration Characteristics of Low-Speed Marine Diesel Engine Fuelled with Biodiesel. Polish Maritime Research, 32(3), 154–162. https://doi.org/10.2478/pomr-2025-0043
  14. Gunst, R. F., Myers, R. H., & Montgomery, D. C. (1996). Response Surface Methodology: Process and Product Optimization Using Designed Experiments. Technometrics, 38(3), 285. https://doi.org/10.2307/1270613
  15. Hoang, A. T. (2019). Experimental study on spray and emission characteristics of a diesel engine fueled with preheated bio-oils and diesel fuel. Energy, 171, 795–808. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2019.01.076
  16. Hoang, A. T. (2021). Prediction of the density and viscosity of biodiesel and the influence of biodiesel properties on a diesel engine fuel supply system. Journal of Marine Engineering & Technology, 20(5), 299–311. https://doi.org/10.1080/20464177.2018.1532734
  17. Hoang, A. T., Bora, B. J., Huynh, D. N. L., Nguyen, D. K. P., & Le, V. V. (2025). Dual-fuel diesel engine features powered by ammonia under various pilot-fuel injection timing: Comprehensive analysis and response surface methodology-based optimization. International Journal of Engine Research. https://doi.org/10.1177/14680874251341036
  18. Hoang, A. T., Chen, W.-H., Paramasivam, P., Kanti, P. K., Huynh, D. N. L., Abdou El-Shafay, A. S., & Nguyen, V. Q. (2025). Comprehensive investigation on performance and emission of dual-fuel diesel engine fuelled with biodiesel and hydrogen using D-optimal design and desirability-based multi-attribute optimization. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 146, 150005. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2025.06.195
  19. Hoang, A. T., Nayak, S. K., Vujanović, M., Guerrero‐Pérez, M. O., Rodríguez‐Castellón, E., López‐Escalante, M. C., Ahmed, S. F., Hadiyanto, H., Luu, V. C., Nguyen, V. N., Nguyen, X. P., & Cao, D. N. (2025). Towards Sustainable Development Goals: Application of Hydrogen‐Enriched Mahua Biodiesel/Diesel Blend to Dual‐Fuel Diesel Engine. Global Challenges, 9(10). https://doi.org/10.1002/gch2.202500260
  20. Huynh, D. N. L., Hoang, A. T., Nayak, S. K., Guerrero-Pérez, M. O., Rodríguez-Castellón, E., López-Escalante, M. C., Sănduleac, M., Efremov, C., Bui, V. G., Luu, V. C., Nguyen, X. P., & Cao, D. N. (2025). Combining Babool wood-derived producer gas and hydrogen with biodiesel as efficient strategies for dual-fuel diesel engine in advancing sustainable energy. Case Studies in Thermal Engineering, 75, 107097. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.CSITE.2025.107097
  21. John, C. B., J., G. J., & Baskar, S. (2026). A comprehensive evaluation of the impact of compression ratio on performance, combustion, and emissions of hemp biodiesel-fueled direct injection diesel engine. Fuel, 405, 136627. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2025.136627
  22. Kalyani, T., Prasad, L. S. V., & Kolakoti, A. (2023). Biodiesel Production from a Naturally Grown Green Algae Spirogyra Using Heterogeneous Catalyst: An Approach to RSM Optimization Technique. International Journal of Renewable Energy Development, 12(2), 300–312. https://doi.org/10.14710/ijred.2023.50065
  23. Khandal, S. V., Razak, A., Veza, I., Afzal, A., Alwetaishi, M., Shaik, S., Ağbulut, Ü., & Rashedi, A. (2024). Hydrogen and dual fuel mode performing in engine with different combustion chamber shapes: Modelling and analysis using RSM-ANN technique. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 52, 973–1005. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2022.09.193
  24. Kline, S. J., & McClintock, F. A. (1953). Describing Uncertainties in Single-Sample Experiments. Mechanical Engineering, 75(1), 3–8. http://54.243.252.9/engr-1330-webroot/6-Projects/P-InstrumentCalibration/Kline_McClintock1953.pdf
  25. Kober, T., Schiffer, H.-W., Densing, M., & Panos, E. (2020). Global energy perspectives to 2060 – WEC’s World Energy Scenarios 2019. Energy Strategy Reviews, 31, 100523. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.esr.2020.100523
  26. Kolakoti, A., Setiyo, M., & Rochman, M. L. (2022). A Green Heterogeneous Catalyst Production and Characterization for Biodiesel Production using RSM and ANN Approach. International Journal of Renewable Energy Development, 11(3), 703–712. https://doi.org/10.14710/ijred.2022.43627
  27. Kuppuswami, S. B., Muthuswamy, P., Sekar, P., Chandrasekharan, T., Pavan, M., & Riyaz, S. (2024). Optimization of diesel engine - Performance and emission parameters utilizing RSM approach using biodiesel-diesel blends and compression. Biopolymer, Smart Materials and Engineering Materials, 020020. https://doi.org/10.1063/5.0194191
  28. Le, K. B., Tran, M. P., & Cao, D. N. (2026). Hybrid Response Surface Methodology–Extreme Gradient Boosting Optimization of a Hemp Biodiesel–Diesel Fueled Compression Ignition Engine. International Journal on Advanced Science, Engineering and Information Technology, 16(2), 372–384. https://doi.org/10.18517/ijaseit.16.2.14077
  29. Le, T. T., Sharma, P., Osman, S. M., Dzida, M., Nguyen, P. Q. P., Tran, M. H., Cao, D. N., & Tran, V. D. (2024). Forecasting energy consumption and carbon dioxide emission of Vietnam by prognostic models based on explainable machine learning and time series. Clean Technologies and Environmental Policy, 26(12), 4405–4431. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10098-024-02852-9
  30. Lv, J., Sun, Y., Zhang, Z., & Fang, Y. (2024). Optimization of operational parameters of marine methanol dual-fuel engine based on RSM-MOPSO. Process Safety and Environmental Protection, 191, 2634–2652. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psep.2024.10.006
  31. Mujtaba, M. A., Masjuki, H. H., Kalam, M. A., Ong, H. C., Gul, M., Farooq, M., Soudagar, M. E. M., Ahmed, W., Harith, M. H., & Yusoff, M. N. A. M. (2020). Ultrasound-assisted process optimization and tribological characteristics of biodiesel from palm-sesame oil via response surface methodology and extreme learning machine - Cuckoo search. Renewable Energy, 158, 202–214. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2020.05.158
  32. Muniyappan, S., & Krishnaiah, R. (2025). Optimizing engine operating parameters for enhanced performance in a combustion-enhanced ternary-fuelled compression ignition engine. Scientific Reports, 15(1), 22611. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-05628-3
  33. Naseef, H. H., & Tulaimat, R. H. (2025). Transesterification and esterification for biodiesel production: A comprehensive review of catalysts and palm oil feedstocks. Energy Conversion and Management: X, 26, 100931. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecmx.2025.100931
  34. Nayak, S. K., Nižetić, S., Pham, V. V., Huang, Z., Ölçer, A. I., Bui, V. G., Wattanavichien, K., & Hoang, A. T. (2022). Influence of injection timing on performance and combustion characteristics of compression ignition engine working on quaternary blends of diesel fuel, mixed biodiesel, and t-butyl peroxide. Journal of Cleaner Production, 333, 130160. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2021.130160
  35. Nguyen, D., Chau, T. H., Nguyen, D. C., Nguyen, D. T., & Nguyen, T. B. N. (2025). Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning in Renewable Energy: From Prediction to Intelligent Optimization. JOIV : International Journal on Informatics Visualization, 9(6), 2528. https://doi.org/10.62527/joiv.9.6.4889
  36. Nguyen, T. H., Paramasivam, P., Dong, V. H., Le, H. C., & Nguyen, D. C. (2024). Harnessing a Better Future: Exploring AI and ML Applications in Renewable Energy. JOIV : International Journal on Informatics Visualization, 8(1), 55. https://doi.org/10.62527/joiv.8.1.2637
  37. Nguyen, V. G., Sharma, P., Dzida, M., Bui, V. H., Le, H. S., El-Shafay, A. S., Le, H. C., Le, D. T. N., & Tran, V. D. (2024). A Review on Metal–Organic Framework as a Promising Catalyst for Biodiesel Production. Energy & Fuels, 38(4), 2654–2689. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.energyfuels.3c04203
  38. Nguyen, V. N., Sharma, P., Kumar, A., Pham, M. T., Le, H. C., Truong, T. H., & Cao, D. N. (2023). Optimization of biodiesel production from Nahar oil using Box-Behnken design, ANOVA and grey wolf optimizer. International Journal of Renewable Energy Development, 12(4), 711–719. https://doi.org/10.14710/ijred.2023.54941
  39. Onokwai, A. O., Akuru, U. B., & Desai, D. A. (2025). Predictive accuracy and characterisation of bio-oil yield from pyrolysis of Cocos nucifera: A comparison of traditional RSM and hybrid models. International Journal of Renewable Energy Development. https://doi.org/10.61435/ijred.2025.61190
  40. Ouchikh, S., Lounici, M. S., Loubar, K., & Tazerout, M. (2025). Optimization of Injection Strategy for CH4/Diesel Dual-Fuel Engine Using Response Surface Methodology. Energies, 18(8), 2115. https://doi.org/10.3390/en18082115
  41. Oza, S., Prajapati, N., Kodgire, P., & Kachhwaha, S. S. (2021). An ultrasound-assisted process for the optimization of biodiesel production from waste cottonseed cooking oil using response surface methodology. Water-Energy Nexus, 4, 187–198. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wen.2021.11.001
  42. Paramasivama, P., Naima, K., & Dzida, M. (2024). Soft computing-based modelling and optimization of NOx emission from a variable compression ratio diesel engine. Journal of Emerging Science and Engineering, 2(2), e21. https://doi.org/10.61435/jese.2024.e21
  43. Prajapati, A. K., Mahajan, A., Jadhav, S. M., & Kumar, K. (2026). Fourth-generation (4G) biodiesel: Paving the way for a greener and sustainable energy future in emerging economies. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 225, 116103. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2025.116103
  44. Prakash Maran, J., & Priya, B. (2015). Modeling of ultrasound assisted intensification of biodiesel production from neem (Azadirachta indica) oil using response surface methodology and artificial neural network. Fuel, 143, 262–267. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2014.11.058
  45. Quaranta, E., Dibenedetto, A., Colucci, A., & Cornacchia, D. (2022). Partial hydrogenation of FAMEs with high content of C18:2 dienes. Selective hydrogenation of tobacco seed oil-derived biodiesel. Fuel, 326, 125030. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2022.125030
  46. Rahman, M., Kabir, S., Mustafi, N. N., & Robin, H. M. (2026). Effects of CeO2 nanoparticle additive in sesame seed biodiesel-diesel fuel blends on the performance of a diesel engine and emissions. Next Research, 4, 101201. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nexres.2025.101201
  47. Rajak, U., Apparao, K. C., Verma, T. N., & Ağbulut, Ü. (2024). Enhancing performance, and combustion efficiency, and reducing tailpipe emissions of an engine fuelled with hydrogen-enriched diesel and ethanol blends at varying CRs using RSM. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 92, 1236–1247. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2024.10.289
  48. Riayatsyah, T. M. I., Thaib, R., Silitonga, A. S., Milano, J., Shamsuddin, A. H., Sebayang, A. H., Rahmawaty, Sutrisno, J., & Mahlia, T. M. I. (2021). Biodiesel Production from Reutealis trisperma Oil Using Conventional and Ultrasonication through Esterification and Transesterification. Sustainability, 13(6), 3350. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13063350
  49. Sakthivel, R., Ramesh, K., Purnachandran, R., & Mohamed Shameer, P. (2018). A review on the properties, performance and emission aspects of the third generation biodiesels. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 82, 2970–2992. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2017.10.037
  50. Sarabia, L. A., & Ortiz, M. C. (2009). Response Surface Methodology. In Comprehensive Chemometrics (pp. 345–390). Elsevier. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-044452701-1.00083-1
  51. Sarve, A., Sonawane, S. S., & Varma, M. N. (2015). Ultrasound assisted biodiesel production from sesame (Sesamum indicum L.) oil using barium hydroxide as a heterogeneous catalyst: Comparative assessment of prediction abilities between response surface methodology (RSM) and artificial neural network (ANN). Ultrasonics Sonochemistry, 26, 218–228. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ultsonch.2015.01.013
  52. Sebayang, A. H., Ideris, F., Silitonga, A. S., Shamsuddin, A. H., Zamri, M. F. M. A., Pulungan, M. A., Siahaan, S., Alfansury, M., Kusumo, F., & Milano, J. (2023). Optimization of ultrasound-assisted oil extraction from Carica candamarcensis; A potential Oleaginous tropical seed oil for biodiesel production. Renewable Energy, 211, 434–444. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2023.04.099
  53. Sebayang, A. H., Kusumo, F., Milano, J., Shamsuddin, A. H., Silitonga, A. S., Ideris, F., Siswantoro, J., Veza, I., Mofijur, M., & Reen Chia, S. (2023). Optimization of biodiesel production from rice bran oil by ultrasound and infrared radiation using ANN-GWO. Fuel, 346, 128404. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2023.128404
  54. Shami, T. M., Summakieh, M. A., Alswaitti, M., Jahdhami, M. A. Al, Sheikh, A. M., & El-Saleh, A. A. (2023). TPPSO: A Novel Two-Phase Particle Swarm Optimization. JOIV : International Journal on Informatics Visualization, 7(3–2), 2095. https://doi.org/10.30630/joiv.7.3-2.2331
  55. Sharma, P., Chhillar, A., Said, Z., Huang, Z., Nguyen, V. N., Nguyen, P. Q. P., & Nguyen, X. P. (2022). Experimental investigations on efficiency and instability of combustion process in a diesel engine fueled with ternary blends of hydrogen peroxide additive/biodiesel/diesel. Energy Sources, Part A: Recovery, Utilization, and Environmental Effects, 44(3), 5929–5950. https://doi.org/10.1080/15567036.2022.2091692
  56. Sharma, P., & Sharma, A. K. (2022). Statistical and Continuous Wavelet Transformation-Based Analysis of Combustion Instabilities in a Biodiesel-Fueled Compression Ignition Engine. Journal of Energy Resources Technology, 144(3). https://doi.org/10.1115/1.4051340
  57. Shrivastava, K., Thipse, S. S., & Patil, I. D. (2021). Optimization of diesel engine performance and emission parameters of Karanja biodiesel-ethanol-diesel blends at optimized operating conditions. Fuel, 293, 120451. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2021.120451
  58. Susaimanickam, A., Manickam, P., & Joseph, A. A. (2023). A Comprehensive Review on RSM-Coupled Optimization Techniques and Its Applications. Archives of Computational Methods in Engineering, 30(8), 4831–4853. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11831-023-09963-4
  59. Szulczyk, K. R., & Badeeb, R. A. (2022). Nontraditional sources for biodiesel production in Malaysia: The economic evaluation of hemp, jatropha, and kenaf biodiesel. Renewable Energy, 192, 759–768. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2022.04.097
  60. Teklehaimanot, H., Gupta, N., & Nallamothu, R. B. (2025). The impact of Al2O3 nano additives on Jatropha curcas biodiesel-diesel blend on combustion and emission behavior. Energy Conversion and Management: X, 25, 100870. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecmx.2025.100870
  61. Tian, Y., Liu, X., Fan, C., Li, T., Qin, H., Li, X., Chen, K., Zheng, Y., Chen, F., & Xu, Y. (2021). Enhancement of Tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum L.) Seed Lipid Content for Biodiesel Production by CRISPR-Cas9-Mediated Knockout of NtAn1. Frontiers in Plant Science, 11. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2020.599474
  62. Ugraram, R. (2025). Performance optimization of oxy-fuel combustion diesel engine with EGR based on fuel injection parameters using response surface methodology (RSM). Journal of Thermal Engineering, 301–313. https://doi.org/10.14744/thermal.0000896
  63. Usta, N., Aydoğan, B., Çon, A. H., Uğuzdoğan, E., & Özkal, S. G. (2011). Properties and quality verification of biodiesel produced from tobacco seed oil. Energy Conversion and Management, 52(5), 2031–2039. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2010.12.021
  64. Veljković, V. B., Lakićević, S. H., Stamenković, O. S., Todorović, Z. B., & Lazić, M. L. (2006). Biodiesel production from tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum L.) seed oil with a high content of free fatty acids. Fuel, 85(17–18), 2671–2675. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2006.04.015
  65. Vellaiyan, S. (2025). Enhancement of combustion performance and emission control in Bauhinia malabarica biodiesel-diesel blends using aluminium oxide nanoparticles and electrostatic precipitators. Cleaner Engineering and Technology, 26, 100981. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clet.2025.100981
  66. Wan Osman, W. N. A., Rosli, M. H., Mazli, W. N. A., & Samsuri, S. (2024). Comparative review of biodiesel production and purification. Carbon Capture Science & Technology, 13, 100264. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ccst.2024.100264
  67. Wei, C., Jiang, G., Wu, G., Zhou, Y., & Liu, Y. (2024). Effects on of Blended Biodiesel and Heavy Oil on Engine Combustion and Black Carbon Emissions of a Low-Speed Two-Stroke Engine. Polish Maritime Research, 31(1), 94–101. https://doi.org/10.2478/pomr-2024-0010
  68. Yew, G. Y., Lee, S. Y., Show, P. L., Tao, Y., Law, C. L., Nguyen, T. T. C., & Chang, J.-S. (2019). Recent advances in algae biodiesel production: From upstream cultivation to downstream processing. Bioresource Technology Reports, 7, 100227. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biteb.2019.100227
  69. Zafar, M., Hussain, A., Ahmed, T., Daabo, A., & Ullah, F. (2026). Addition of Nanoparticles to Biodiesel–Diesel Blends to Improve Engine Efficiency and Reduce Tailpipe Emission. In Machine Learning for Sustainable Energy Solutions (pp. 139–159). Wiley. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781394267439.ch8
  70. Zhang, W., Ou, J., Chen, Z., Li, Z., Zhijun, L., & Pan, M. (2025). Multi-objective performance optimization of diesel engine lip jet combustion chamber based on RSM-NSGA-Ⅱ. Energy, 330, 136825. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2025.136825
  71. Zullaikah, S., Putra, A. K., Fachrudin, F. H., Naulina, R. Y., Utami, S., Herminanto, R. P., Rachmaniah, O., & Ju, Y. H. (2021). Experimental Investigation and Optimization of Non-Catalytic In-Situ Biodiesel Production from Rice Bran Using Response Surface Methodology Historical Data Design. International Journal of Renewable Energy Development, 10(4), 803–810. https://doi.org/10.14710/ijred.2021.34138

Last update:

No citation recorded.

Last update: 2026-06-09 21:56:08

No citation recorded.