DOI: https://doi.org/10.61435/ijred.2025.61065

Optimization of biodiesel production from candlenut oil via simultaneous reaction using a bifunctional CeO2.CaO catalyst

1Department of Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Diponegoro University, Indonesia

2Engineer Professional Program Study Program, Faculty of Engineering, Diponegoro University, Indonesia

3Advanced Materials Laboratory, Center Laboratory for Research and Service Unit, Diponegoro University, Indonesia

Received: 31 Jan 2024; Revised: 16 Aug 2024; Accepted: 7 Oct 2024; Available online: 24 Oct 2024; Published: 1 Nov 2025.
Editor(s): Rupam Kataki
Open Access Copyright (c) 2025 The Author(s). Published by Centre of Biomass and Renewable Energy (CBIORE)
Creative Commons License This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License.

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Abstract
The biodiesel synthesis process with a high FFA content can be accomplished in a single stage using solid catalysts that function simultaneously as base and acid catalysts. In this study, CeO₂.CaO was used as a bifunctional catalyst for biodiesel synthesis from candlenut seed oil. CeO2.CaO catalyst with a weight ratio of CeO2 : CaO (1:4) was synthesized through a physical mixing process. The effects of the methanol-to-oil molar ratio, catalyst loading, and reaction temperature on the resulting biodiesel yield were investigated. Biodiesel was synthesized in a three-necked flask with a mole ratio of methanol to oil (8:1, 10:1, 12:1). CeO2.CaO catalyst was added with a concentration of 2% w/w, 4% w/w, and 6% w/w to the weight of candlenut oil. Heating was carried out at 50ºC, 60ºC, and 70ºC with stirring using a magnetic stirrer at 200 rpm for 1 hour. The FTIR analysis shows peaks corresponding to the O-Ca-O and O-Ce-O groups, indicating the formation of the CeO₂.CaO catalyst. BET analysis provides data on the catalyst's surface area (9.536 m²/g), pore diameter (5.876 nm), and pore volume (0.028 cm³/g). SEM-EDX analysis reveals that the catalyst has a mesoporous structure, which is beneficial for transesterification reactions. TPD analysis indicates that the bifunctional CeO₂.CaO catalyst possesses strong acidic and basic properties. The optimum operating conditions to achieve a high FAME yield were a methanol-to-oil molar ratio of 10.3:1, 5.39% w/w catalyst loading, and a reaction temperature of 60°C. Based on the catalyst reusability assessment, the CeO₂.CaO bifunctional catalyst demonstrated favorable stability, retaining catalytic performance over multiple cycles. After four consecutive reaction cycles, the catalyst maintained an overall biodiesel yield exceeding 75%, indicating its potential for repeated use in transesterification processes
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Keywords: Bifunctional catalyst; biodiesel; optimization; candlenut oil; catalyst characteristics

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Language : EN
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