DOI: https://doi.org/10.61435/ijred.2026.62246
View PDF Download fulltext

New alternative biodiesel (fatty acid butyl ester) production using microwave-assisted transesterification: kinetics and optimization

1Department of Chemical Engineering, Institut Teknologi Sepuluh Nopember, Jl. Arief Rachman Hakim, Sukolilo, Surabaya 60111, Indonesia

2Department of Industrial Chemical Engineering, Institut Teknologi Sepuluh Nopember, Jl. Arief Rachman Hakim, Sukolilo, Surabaya 60111, Indonesia

Received: 14 Jan 2026; Revised: 17 Aug 2026; Accepted: 28 Sep 2026; Available online: 6 Oct 2026; Published: 1 Nov 2026.
Editor(s): Sohail Nadeem
Open Access Copyright (c) 2026 The Author(s). Published by Centre of Biomass and Renewable Energy (CBIORE)
Creative Commons License This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License.

Citation Format:
Abstract

Microwave-assisted transesterification represents a promising intensification strategy for rapid biodiesel processing. This study investigates the production of fatty acid butyl esters (FABE) from coconut oil via microwave-assisted butanolysis as an alternative to conventional methanol- or ethanol-based ester systems. Process optimization was performed using a face-centered central composite design (FCCD), with reaction time, temperature, and butanol-to-oil molar ratio as the principal variables. Under the optimized conditions, an approximately 98 % gravimetric product-recovery yield was obtained in less than three minutes. Kinetic analysis showed that the experimental data were better described by an apparent pseudo-second-order model under the investigated conditions; this model is interpreted as a lumped empirical description rather than proof of an elementary reaction mechanism. The evaluated fuel properties—density, kinematic viscosity, flash point, and cetane number—were within the corresponding limits specified by SNI 7182:2015 for those measured parameters only. Full SNI compliance and standardized quantitative total ester content were not established. Overall, the results demonstrate the feasibility of rapid microwave-assisted coconut-oil butanolysis while identifying important needs for improved feedstock characterization, quantitative ester analysis, replicated screening experiments, direct total-energy measurement, microwave-compatible temperature sensing, and solvent-recovery mass balancing.

Keywords: Microwave-assisted transesterification; Fatty acid butyl esters (FABE); Alternative biodiesel; Coconut oil; Butanolysis; Kinetic study; FCCD optimization; Renewable energy

Article Metrics:

Article Info
Section: Original Research Article
Language : EN
Recent articles
Hard-template synthesis of Ti–V–Mn ternary photocatalysts using gelatin-modified mesoporous silica for efficient methylene blue degradation Effect of hydrogen co-firing on combustion efficiency, steam production, and emissions of a B7 diesel water-tube boiler: An experimental and semi-empirical combustion modeling study Experimental analysis of a novel aerofoil-savonius type vertical axis wind turbine with an aerodynamic augmentation shell More recent articles
Most cited articles
Process Optimization for Ethyl Ester Production in Fixed Bed Reactor Using Calcium Oxide Impregnated Palm Shell Activated Carbon (CaO/PSAC) Thermal Energy Optimization of Building Integrated Semi-Transparent Photovoltaic Thermal Systems Multi-Criteria Decision Making (MCDM) Approach for Selecting Solar Plants Site and Technology: A Review Historic Developments, Current Technologies and Potential of Nanotechnology to Develop Next Generation Solar Cells with Improved Efficiency Modeling and Experimental Validation of a Transient Direct Expansion Heat Pump More cited articles
  1. Abdulkareem, H. A., Yassen, M. T., Ahmed, N. N., Ahmed, M. B., Gheni, S. A., Ali, M. M., Al-Sudani, F. T., & Tahah, A. K. (2026). Innovatively Engineered Biowaste-Derived CaO–Fe/Activated Carbon and Ce/Sepiolite Composite Catalysts for Microwave-Intensified Biodiesel Production from Waste Cooking oil. Biochemical Engineering Journal, 229, 110097. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bej.2026.110097
  2. Andreo-Martínez, P., García-Martínez, N., Durán-del-Amor, M. del M., & Quesada-Medina, J. (2018). Advances on Kinetics and Thermodynamics of Non-catalytic Supercritical Methanol Transesterification of Some Vegetable Oils to Biodiesel. Energy Conversion and Management, 173, 187–196. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2018.07.069
  3. Angassa, K., Tesfay, E., Weldmichael, T. G., & Kebede, S. (2023). Response Surface Methodology Process Optimization of Biodiesel Production from Castor Seed Oil. Journal of Chemistry, 2023, 6657732. https://doi.org/10.1155/2023/6657732
  4. Anwar, M., Rasul, M. G., Ashwath, N., & Rahman, M. M. (2018). Optimisation of Second-Generation Biodiesel Production from Australian Native Stone Fruit Oil Using Response Surface Method. Energies, 11(10), 2566. https://doi.org/10.3390/en11102566
  5. Aracil, J., El Boulifi, N., Bouaid, A., & Martinez, M. (2010). Process Optimization for Biodiesel Production from Corn Oil and Its Oxidative Stability. International Journal of Chemical Engineering, 2010, 518070. https://doi.org/10.1155/2010/518070
  6. Asaad, S. M., Inayat, A., Jamil, F., Ghenai, C., & Shanableh, A. (2023). Optimization of Biodiesel Production from Waste Cooking Oil Using a Green Catalyst Prepared from Glass Waste and Animal Bones. Energies, 16(5), 2322. https://doi.org/10.3390/en16052322
  7. Ashnani, M. H. M., Johari, A., Hashim, H., & Hasani, E. (2014). Life Cycle Assessment of Palm Oil Biodiesel Production in Malaysia. Applied Mechanics and Materials, 465–466, 1080–1086. https://doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/amm.465-466.1080
  8. Babaki, M., Yousefi, M., Habibi, Z., & Mohammadi, M. (2017). Process Optimization for Biodiesel Production from Waste Cooking Oil Using Multi-enzyme Systems through Response Surface Methodology. Renewable Energy, 105, 465–472. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2016.12.086
  9. Badan Pusat Statistik. (2024). Luas Areal Tanaman Perkebunan Rakyat Menurut Jenis Tanaman (Ribu Hektar), 2021-2023. https://www.bps.go.id/id/statistics-table/2/MjU2OCMy/luas-areal-perkebunan-rakyat-menurut-jenis-tanaman.html
  10. Badan Standardisasi Nasional. (2015). SNI 7182:2015 Syarat Mutu Biodiesel. www.bsn.go.id
  11. Betiku, E., Okunsolawo, S. S., Ajala, S. O., & Odedele, O. S. (2015). Performance Evaluation of Artificial Neural Network Coupled with Generic Algorithm and Response Surface Methodology in Modeling and Optimization of Biodiesel Production Process Parameters from Shea Tree (Vitellaria paradoxa) Nut Butter. Renewable Energy, 76, 408–417. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2014.11.049
  12. Cancela, A., Maceiras, R., Urrejola, S., & Sanchez, A. (2012). Microwave-Assisted Transesterification of Macroalgae. Energies, 5(4), 862–871. https://doi.org/10.3390/en5040862
  13. Cercado, A. P. I., Ballesteros Jr, F. C., & Capareda, S. C. (2018). Biodiesel from Three Microalgae Transesterification Processes Using Different Homogenous Catalysts. International Journal of Technology, 9(4), 645–651. https://doi.org/10.14716/ijtech.v9i4.1145
  14. Cevheroǧlu Çira, S., Daǧ, A., & Karakuş, A. (2016). Application of Response Surface Methodology and Central Composite Inscribed Design for Modeling and Optimization of Marble Surface Quality. Advances in Materials Science and Engineering, 2016, 2349476. https://doi.org/10.1155/2016/2349476
  15. Chakraborty, R., & Bepari, S. (2012). Biodiesel Synthesis From Mustard Oil (Brassica Nigra) Using Calcium Oxide-Calcium Aluminate Catalyst Developed From Duck Eggshell. International Journal Of Advanced Scientific Research And Technology, 3(2), 242–256
  16. Chakraborty, R., Das, S., & Bhattacharjee, S. K. (2015). Optimization of Biodiesel Production from Indian Mustard Oil by Biological Tri-calcium Phosphate Catalyst Derived from Turkey Bone Ash. Clean Technologies and Environmental Policy, 17(2), 455–463. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10098-014-0802-z
  17. Chakraborty, R., Das, S., Pradhan, P., & Mukhopadhyay, P. (2014). Prediction of Optimal Conditions in the Methanolysis of Mustard Oil for Biodiesel Production Using Cost-Effective Mg-Solid Catalysts. Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Research, 53(51), 19681–19689. https://doi.org/10.1021/ie501084z
  18. Chen, H. Y., & Cui, Z. W. (2016). A Microwave-Sensitive Solid Acid Catalyst Prepared from Sweet Potato via a Simple Method. Catalysts, 6(12), 211. https://doi.org/10.3390/catal6120211
  19. Chen, Q., & Qi, J. (2023). How Much Should We Trust R2 and Adjusted R2: Evidence from Regressions in Top Economics Journals and Monte Carlo Simulations. Journal of Applied Economics, 26(1), 2207326. https://doi.org/10.1080/15140326.2023.2207326
  20. Chin, L. H., Hameed, B. H., & Ahmad, A. L. (2009). Process Optimization for Biodiesel Production from Waste Cooking Palm Oil (Elaeis guineensis) Using Response Surface Methodology. Energy & Fuels, 23(2), 1040–1044. https://doi.org/10.1021/ef8007954
  21. Chua, C. B. H., Lee, H. M., & Low, J. S. C. (2010). Life Cycle Emissions and Energy Study of Biodiesel Derived From Waste Cooking Oil and Diesel in Singapore. The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment, 15(4), 417–423. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11367-010-0166-5
  22. Czyrski, A., & Jarzebski, H. (2020). Response Surface Methodology as a Useful Tool for Evaluation of the Recovery of the Fluoroquinolones from plasma-The Study on Applicability of Box-Behnken Design, Central Composite Design and Doehlert Design. Processes, 8(4), 473. https://doi.org/10.3390/PR8040473
  23. Doori, W. H. A., Ali, O. M., Ahmed, A. H., & Koten, H. (2022). Comparative Study of Biodiesel Production from Different Waste Oil Sources for Optimum Operation Conditions and Better Engine Performance. Journal of Thermal Engineering, 8(4), 457–465. https://doi.org/10.18186/thermal.1135266
  24. Ezzati, R., Ranjbar, S., & Soltanabadi, A. (2021). Kinetics Models of Transesterification Reaction for Biodiesel Production: A Theoretical Analysis. Renewable Energy, 168, 280–296. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2020.12.055
  25. Fernández-Tirado, F., Parra-López, C., & Romero-Gámez, M. (2017). Evaluating the Environmental Sustainability of Energy Crops: A Life Cycle Assessment of Spanish Rapeseed and Argentinean Soybean Cultivation. Spanish Journal of Agricultural Research, 15(1), e0107. https://doi.org/10.5424/sjar/2017151-9287
  26. Font de Mora, E., Torres, C., Valero, A., & Zambrana, D. (2013). Defossilisation Assessment of Biodiesel Life Cycle Production Using the ExROI Indicator. International Journal of Thermodynamics, 16(2), 81–86. https://doi.org/10.5541/ijot.452
  27. Gaide, I., Makareviciene, V., Sendzikiene, E., & Gumbytė, M. (2023). Rapeseed Oil Transesterification Using 1-Butanol and Eggshell as a Catalyst. Catalysts, 13(2), 302. https://doi.org/10.3390/catal13020302
  28. Garusti, G., Khuluq, A. D., Hartono, J., Riajaya, P. D., & Purwati, R. D. (2020). Karakteristik Biodiesel Kemiri Sunan dengan Katalis NaOH dan KOH. Buletin Tanaman Tembakau, Serat & Minyak Industri, 12(2), 78–85. https://doi.org/10.21082/btsm.v12n2.2020.78-85
  29. Giraldi-Díaz, M. R., De Medina-Salas, L., Castillo-González, E., & De la Cruz-Benavides, M. (2018). Environmental Impact Associated With the Supply Chain and Production of Biodiesel From Jatropha Curcas L. Through Life Cycle Analysis. Sustainability, 10(5), 1451. https://doi.org/10.3390/su10051451
  30. Gong, J., & You, F. (2015). Value-Added Chemicals From Microalgae: Greener, More Economical, or Both? ACS Sustainable Chemistry & Engineering, 3(1), 82–96. https://doi.org/10.1021/sc500683w
  31. Gude, V. G., Patil, P., Martinez-Guerra, E., Deng, S., & Nirmalakhandan, N. (2013). Microwave Energy Potential for Biodiesel Production. Sustainable Chemical Processes, 1, 5. https://doi.org/10.1186/2043-7129-1-5
  32. Hájek, M., Skopal, F., Vávra, A., & Kocík, J. (2017). Transesterification of rapeseed oil by butanol and separation of butyl ester. Journal of Cleaner Production, 155, 28–33. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2016.07.007
  33. Handayani, P. A., Abdullah, A., & Hadiyanto, H. (2019). Response Surface Optimization of Biodiesel Production from Nyamplung (Calophyllum inophyllum) Oil Enhanced by Microwave and Ionic Liquid + NaOH Catalyst. Periodica Polytechnica Chemical Engineering, 63(3), 406–413. https://doi.org/10.3311/PPch.12965
  34. Handayani, P. A., Abdullah, & Hadiyanto. (2018). Process Evaluation of Biodiesel Production from Nyamplung (Calophyllum inophyllum) Oil Enhanced by Ionic Liquid + NaOH Catalyst and Microwave Heating System. Journal of Physical Science, 29(Suppl. 2), 265–275. https://doi.org/10.21315/jps2018.29.s2.21
  35. Harsono, S. S., Prochnow, A., Grundmann, P., Hansen, A., & Hallmann, C. (2012). Energy Balances and Greenhouse Gas Emissions of Palm Oil Biodiesel in Indonesia. GCB Bioenergy, 4(2), 213–228. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1757-1707.2011.01118.x
  36. Hazrat, M. A., Rasul, M. G., Khan, M. M. K., Ashwath, N., Silitonga, A. S., Fattah, I. M. R., & Mahlia, T. M. I. (2022). Kinetic Modelling of Esterification and Transesterification Processes for Biodiesel Production Utilising Waste-Based Resource. Catalysts, 12(11), 1472. https://doi.org/10.3390/catal12111472
  37. Hou, J., Zhang, P., Yuan, X.-Z., & Yonghong, Z. (2011). Life Cycle Assessment of Biodiesel From Soybean, Jatropha and Microalgae in China Conditions. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 15(9), 5081–5091. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2011.07.048
  38. Hsiao, M. C., Liao, P. H., Lan, N. V., & Hou, S. S. (2021). Enhancement of Biodiesel Production from High-Acid-Value Waste Cooking Oil via a Microwave Reactor Using a Homogeneous Alkaline Catalyst. Energies, 14(2), 437. https://doi.org/10.3390/en14020437
  39. International Coconut Community. (2024). Market Review of Dessicated Coconut June 2024. https://coconutcommunity.org/page-statistics/market-review/market-review-of-dessicated-coconut-june-2024
  40. Iqbal, M. M. A., Bakar, W. A. W. A., Toemen, S., Razak, F. I. A., & Azelee, N. I. W. (2020). Optimization Study by Box-Behnken Design (BBD) and Mechanistic Insight of CO2 Methanation over Ru-Fe-Ce/γ-Al2O3 Catalyst by In-situ FTIR Technique. Arabian Journal of Chemistry, 13(2), 4170–4179. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.arabjc.2019.06.010
  41. Kannan, R., Ramalingam, S., Sampath, S., Nedunchezhiyan, M., Dillikannan, D., & Jayabal, R. (2024). Optimization and Synthesis Process of Biodiesel Production from Coconut Oil using Central Composite Rotatable Design of Response Surface Methodology. Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part E: Journal of Process Mechanical Engineering. Advance Online Publication. https://doi.org/10.1177/09544089241230251
  42. Kaushik, P., Kaur, G., & Hasan, I. (2024). Biodiesel Synthesis from Coconut Oil Using the Ash of Citrus limetta Peels as a Renewable Heterogeneous Catalyst. Catalysts, 14(8), 549. https://doi.org/10.3390/catal14080549
  43. Khadivi, F., Samani, B. H., Rostami, S., Taki, K., Asghari, M., & Ghatrehsamani, S. (2025). Optimization and CFD-RSM Analysis of Single Orifice Reactor for Enhanced Biodiesel Production. PLoS One, 20(7), e0326747. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0326747
  44. Khan, H. M., Iqbal, T., Mujtaba, M. A., Soudagar, M. E. M., Veza, I., & Fattah, I. M. R. (2021). Microwave Assisted Biodiesel Production Using Heterogeneous Catalysts. Energies, 14(23), 8135. https://doi.org/10.3390/en14238135
  45. Koech, A. K., Kumar, A., & Siagi, Z. O. (2020). In Situ Transesterification of Spirulina Microalgae to Produce Biodiesel Using Microwave Irradiation. Journal of Energy, 2020, 8816296. https://doi.org/10.1155/2020/8816296
  46. Kumar, P., Ramprasad, M., & Sidharth. (2021). Optimized Biodiesel Preparation from Waste Cooking Oil as a Fuel for Unmodified Diesel Engines. Journal of Engineering Research (Kuwait), 2021, 1–18. https://doi.org/10.36909/jer.ICETET.14989
  47. Kumar, R., & Sethy, A. K. (2015). Microwave Assisted Energy Efficient Biodiesel Production from Crude Pongamia pinnata (L.) Oil Using Homogeneous Catalyst. Journal of Forest and Environmental Science, 31(1), 1–6. https://doi.org/10.7747/JFES.2015.31.1.1
  48. Kurczyński, D., Wcisło, G., Leśniak, A., Kozak, M., & Łagowski, P. (2022). Production and Testing of Butyl and Methyl Esters as New Generation Biodiesels from Fatty Wastes of the Leather Industry. Energies, 15(22), 8744. https://doi.org/10.3390/en15228744
  49. Kurniati, S., Soeparman, S., Yuwono, S. S., Hakim, L., & Syam, S. (2019). A Novel Process for Production of Calophyllum Inophyllum Biodiesel with Electromagnetic Induction. Energies, 12(3), 383. https://doi.org/10.3390/en12030383
  50. Maheswaran, R., & Uthranarayan, C. (2022). Effect of Photosynthetic Bacteria Based Feedstock and Temperature on Biodiesel Yield Using Microwave Assisted Transesterification With an Application of Box Behnken Supported Response Surface Methodology. Journal of the Chilean Chemical Society, 67(3), 5636–5642. https://doi.org/10.4067/S0717-97072022000305636
  51. Mahfud, M., Kalsum, U., & Aswie, V. (2020). Biodiesel Production through Catalytic Microwave In-Situ Transesterification of Microalgae (Chlorella sp.). International Journal of Renewable Energy Development, 9(1), 113–117. https://doi.org/10.14710/ijred.9.1.113-117
  52. Mahfud, M., Rachmaditasari, R., Ansori, A., Suryanto, A., & Sardi, B. (2025). Optimization Using Box-Behnken Design of Biodiesel Synthesis: Microwave-Assisted Transesterification of Coconut Oil with Isopropyl Alcohol Using K2O/γ-Al2O3 Catalyst. Biocatalysis and Agricultural Biotechnology, 67, 103657. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bcab.2025.103657
  53. Mahfud, M., Suryanto, A., Qadariyah, L., Suprapto, S., & Kusuma, H. S. (2018). Production of Methyl Ester from Coconut Oil Using Microwave: Kinetic of Transesterification Reaction Using Heterogeneous CaO Catalyst. Korean Chemical Engineering Research, 56(2), 275–280. https://doi.org/10.9713/kcer.2018.56.2.275
  54. Maliyekkal, M. N., & Shaija, A. (2021). Feasibility of Coconut Testa Oil and Coconut Waste Cooking Oil as Potential Biodiesel Feedstocks. Research Square. https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-684031/v1
  55. Milano, J., Tiong, S. K., Chia, S. R., Ong, M. Y., Sebayang, A. H., & Kalam, M. A. (2024). Production of Biodiesel from Non-edible Waste Palm Oil and Sterculia Foetida Using Microwave Irradiation. IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science, 1372(1), 012047. https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/1372/1/012047
  56. Mohammed, N. I., Kabbashi, N. A., Alam, M. Z., & Mirghani, M. E. S. (2021). Optimization of Jatropha Biodiesel Production by Response Surface Methodology. Green and Sustainable Chemistry, 11(1), 23–37. https://doi.org/10.4236/gsc.2021.111003
  57. Mohanraj, J., Kannan, G. R., & Elango, M. (2022). Intensification of Biodiesel Production by Optimizing Process Parameters from Waste Cooking Oil through Response Surface Methodology. IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science, 1100(1), 012017. https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/1100/1/012017
  58. Montgomery, D. C. (2013). Design and Analysis of Experiments (8th ed.). John Wiley & Sons, Inc
  59. Musharavati, F., Sajid, K., Anwer, I., Nizami, A., Javed, M. H., Ahmad, A., & Naqvi, M. (2023). Advancing Biodiesel Production System From Mixed Vegetable Oil Waste: A Life Cycle Assessment of Environmental and Economic Outcomes. Sustainability, 15(24), 16550. https://doi.org/10.3390/su152416550
  60. Nekkanti, V., Muniyappan, T., Karatgi, P., Hari, M. S., Marella, S., & Pillai, R. (2009). Spray-Drying Process Optimization for Manufacture of Drug – Cyclodextrin Complex Powder Using Design of Experiments. Drug Development and Industrial Pharmacy, 35(10), 1219–1229. https://doi.org/10.1080/03639040902882264
  61. Niju, S., Vishnupriya, G., & Balajii, M. (2019). Process Optimization of Calophyllum inophyllum-waste Cooking Oil Mixture for Biodiesel Production Using Donax Deltoides Shells as Heterogeneous Catalyst. Sustainable Environment Research, 29, 18. https://doi.org/10.1186/s42834-019-0015-6
  62. Nimcevic, D., Puntigam, R., Wörgetten, M., & Gapes, J. R. (2000). Preparation of Rapeseed Oil Esters of Lower Aliphatic Alcohols. JAOCS, Journal of the American Oil Chemists’ Society, 77(3), 275–280. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11746-000-0045-1
  63. Njoku, C. N., & Otisi, S. K. (2023). Application of Central Composite Design with Design Expert v13 in Process Optimization. Response Surface Methodology - Research Advances and Applications, 1–31. https://doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.109704
  64. Nomanbhay, S., & Ong, M. Y. (2017). A Review of Microwave-Assisted Reactions for Biodiesel Production. Bioengineering, 4(2), 57. https://doi.org/10.3390/bioengineering4020057
  65. Okpala, C. V., & Dibia, K. T. (2025). Optimized Biodiesel Production from Palm Kernel and Jatropha Curcas Oil Blend Using KOH-Supported Calcined Animal Bone Catalyst: A Response Surface Methodology and Genetic Algorithm-Bayesian Hybridization. Cleaner Chemical Engineering, 11, 100141. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clce.2024.100141
  66. Özgur, C., Tosun, E., & Özgur, T. (2017). Comparison of the Effects of Reaction Parameters on Cold Flow Properties of Biodiesel. MATTER: International Journal of Science and Technology, 3(3), 62–71. https://doi.org/10.20319/mijst.2017.33.6271
  67. Qadariyah, L., Panjaitan, R., & Mahfud. (2021). Optimization Microwave Assisted Transesterification Insitu for Biodiesel Production from Chlorella sp. Using Response Surface Methodology. IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science, 743(1), 012090. https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/743/1/012090
  68. Rachmaditasari, R., Darojat, M. I., & Mahfud, M. (2024). Production of Biodiesel (Isopropyl Ester) from Coconut Oil by Microwave Assisted Transesterification: Parametric Study and Optimization. International Journal of Renewable Energy Development, 13(4), 662–672. https://doi.org/10.61435/ijred.2024.60174
  69. Radojković, M., Zeković, Z., Jokić, S., & Vidović, S. (2012). Determination of Optimal Extraction Parameters of Mulberry Leaves Using Response Surface Methodology (RSM). Romanian Biotechnological Letters, 17(3), 7295–7308
  70. Refaat, A. A., El Sheltawy, S. T., & Sadek, K. U. (2008). Optimum Reaction Time, Performance and Exhaust Emissions of Biodiesel Produced by Microwave Irradiation. International Journal of Environmental Science and Technology, 5(3), 315–322. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF03326026
  71. Renita, A. A., Sreedhar, N., & Magesh Peter, D. (2014). Optimization of Algal Methyl Esters Using RSM and Evaluation of Biodiesel Storage Characteristics. Bioresources and Bioprocessing, 1, 19. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40643-014-0019-3
  72. Rhithuparna, D., Saha, B. B., Rokhum, S. L., & Halder, G. (2026). Advanced Non-catalytic Biodiesel Production Under Microwave Irradiation Using Waste Cooking Oil: Assessment of Scale-up Potential. Renewable Energy, 259, 125017. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2025.125017
  73. Roushdy, M. H. (2022). Heterogeneous Biodiesel Catalyst from Steel Slag Resulting from an Electric Arc Furnace. Processes, 10(3), 465. https://doi.org/10.3390/pr10030465
  74. Sánchez, M., Bergamin, F., Peña, E., Martínez, M., & Aracil, J. (2015). A Comparative Study of The Production of Esters from Jatropha Oil Using Different Short-Chain Alcohols: Optimization and Characterization. Fuel, 143, 183–188. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2014.11.064
  75. Seneviratne, K., & Jayathilaka, N. (2016). Coconut Oil: Chemistry and Nutrition (1st Ed.). Lakva Publishers
  76. Setiadji, S., Sundari, C. D. D., Munir, M., & Fitriyah, S. (2018). Synthesis of Solid Catalyst from Egg Shell Waste and Clay for Biodiesel Production. Journal of Physics: Conference Series, 1013(1), 012199. https://doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/1013/1/012199
  77. Sierra-Cantor, J. F., & Guerrero-Fajardo, C. A. (2017). Methods for Improving The Cold Flow Properties of Biodiesel with High Saturated Fatty Acids Content: A Review. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 72, 774–790. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2017.01.077
  78. Soliman, A., Ismail, A. R., Khater, M., Amr, S. A. A., El-Gendy, N. S., & Ezzat, A. A. (2024). Response Surface Optimization of a Single-Step Castor Oil–Based Biodiesel Production Process Using a Stator-Rotor Hydrodynamic Cavitation Reactor. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 31(50), 60601–60618. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-024-35043-6
  79. Souza, T. P. C., Silva, R. J. M. C. L., Melo, J. C., Tschoeke, I. C. P., Silva, J. P., Pacheco, J. G. A., & Silva, J. M. F. (2019). Kinetic Modeling of Cottonseed Oil Transesterification with Ethanol. Reaction Kinetics, Mechanisms and Catalysis, 128(2), 707–722. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11144-019-01661-2
  80. Suryanto, A., Suprapto, S., & Mahfud, M. (2015). Production Biodiesel from Coconut Oil Using Microwave: Effect of Some Parameters on Transesterification Reaction by NaOH Catalyst. Bulletin of Chemical Reaction Engineering and Catalysis, 10(2), 162–168. https://doi.org/10.9767/bcrec.10.2.8080.162-168
  81. Verdooren, L. R. (2017). Use of Doehlert Designs for Second-order Polynomial Models. Mathematics and Statistics, 5(2), 62–67. https://doi.org/10.13189/ms.2017.050202
  82. Woo, C., Kook, S., Hawkes, E. R., Rogers, P. L., & Marquis, C. P. (2016). Dependency of Engine Combustion on Blending Ratio Variations of Lipase-Catalysed Coconut Oil Biodiesel and Petroleum Diesel. Fuel, 169, 146–157. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2015.12.024
  83. Yamin, J., Al-Hamamre, Z., & Sandouqa, A. (2024). Modelling and Optimisation of Biodiesel Production Using Waste Cooking Oil Using The Response Surface Methodology. International Journal of Sustainable Energy, 43(1), 2355654. https://doi.org/10.1080/14786451.2024.2355654
  84. Yao, X., Wang, Z., Qian, M., Deng, Q., & Sun, P. (2024). Kinetic Aspects of Esterification and Transesterification in Microstructured Reactors. Molecules, 29(15), 3651. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules29153651
  85. Zabaruddin, N. H., Abdullah, L. C., Mohamed, N. H., & Choong, T. S. Y. (2020). Optimization Using Response Surface Methodology (RSM) for Biodiesel Synthesis Catalyzed by Radiation-Induced Kenaf Catalyst in Packed-Bed Reactor. Processes, 8(10), 1289. https://doi.org/10.3390/pr8101289
  86. Zeng, D., Yang, L., & Fang, T. (2017). Process Optimization, Kinetic and Thermodynamic Studies on Biodiesel Production by Supercritical Methanol Transesterification with CH3ONa Catalyst. Fuel, 203, 739–748. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2017.05.019

Last update:

No citation recorded.

Last update: 2026-10-18 05:01:25

No citation recorded.